Wind Power in Power Systems

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Chapter 1
Introduction by Thomas Ackermann

Part A: Theoretical Background and Technical Regulations

Chapter 2
Historical Development and Current Status of Wind Power by Thomas Ackermann

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Historical Background

2.2.1 Mechanical power generation

2.2.2 Electrical power generation

2.3 Current Status of Wind Power Worldwide

2.3.1 Overview of grid-connected wind power generation

2.3.2 Europe

2.3.3 North America

2.3.4 South and Central America

2.3.5 Asia and Pacific

2.3.6 Middle East and Africa

2.3.7 Overview of stand-alone generation

2.3.8 Wind power economics

2.3.9 Environmental issues

2.4 Status of Wind Turbine Technology

2.4.1 Design approaches

2.5 Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 3
Wind Power in Power Systems: An Introduction

By Lennart Söder and Thomas Ackermann

3.2 Power System History

3.3 Current Status of Wind Power in Power Systems

3.4 Network Integration Issues for Wind Power

3.5 Basic Electrical Engineering

3.6 Characteristics of Wind Power Generation

3.6.1 The Wind

3.6.2 The Physics

3.6.3 Wind Power Production

3.7 Basic Integration Issues Related to Wind Power

3.7.1 Consumer requirements

3.7.2 Requirements from wind farm operators

3.7.3 The integration issues

3.8 Conclusions

Appendix: A Mechanical Equivalent to Power System Operation with Wind Power

Introduction

Active power balance

Reactive power balance

References

Chapter 4
Generators and Power Electronics for Wind Turbines

By Anca D. Hansen

4.1 Introduction

4.2 State-of-the-art Technologies

4.2.1 Overview of wind turbine topologies

4.2.2 Overview of power control concepts

4.2.3 State-of-the-art generators

4.2.4 State-of-the-art power electronics

4.2.5 State-of-the-art market penetration

4.3 Generator Concepts

4.3.1 Asynchronous (induction) generator

4.3.2 The synchronous generator

4.3.3 Other types of generators

4.4 Power Electronic Concepts

4.4.1 Soft-starter

4.4.2 Capacitor bank

4.4.3 Rectifiers and inverters

4.4.4 Frequency converters

4.5 Power Electronic Solutions in Wind Farms

4.6 Conclusions

References

Chapter 5
Power Quality Standards for Wind Turbines

By John Olav Tande

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Power Quality Characteristics of Wind Turbines

5.2.1 Rated data

5.2.2 Maximum permitted power

5.2.3 Maximum measured power

5.2.4 Reactive power

5.2.5 Flicker coefficient

5.2.6 Maximum number of wind turbine switching operations

5.2.7 Flicker step factor

5.2.8 Voltage change factor

5.2.9 Harmonic currents

5.2.10 Summary power quality characteristics for various wind turbine types

5.3 Impact on Voltage Quality

5.3.1 General

5.3.2 Case study specifications

5.3.3 Slow voltage variations

5.3.4 Flicker

5.3.5 Voltage dips

5.3.6 Harmonic voltage

5.4 Discussion 93

5.5 Conclusions 94

References 95

Chapter 6
Power Quality Measurements

By Fritz Santjer

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Requirements for Power Quality Measurements

6.2.1 Guidelines

6.2.2 Specification

6.2.3 Future aspects

6.3 Power Quality Characteristics of Wind Turbines and Wind Farms

6.3.1 Power peaks

6.3.2 Reactive power

6.3.3 Harmonics

6.3.4 Flicker

6.3.5 Switching operations

6.4 Assessment Concerning the Grid Connection

6.5 Conclusions

References

Chapter 7
Technical Regulations for the Interconnection of Wind Farms to the Power System

By Julija Matevosyan, Thomas Ackermann and Sigrid M. Bolik

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Overview of Technical Regulations

7.2.1 Regulations for networks below 110 kV

7.2.2 Regulations for networks above 110 kV

7.2.3 Combined regulations

7.3 Comparison of Technical Interconnection Regulations

7.3.1 Active power control

7.3.2 Frequency control

7.3.3 Voltage control

7.3.4 Tap changers

7.3.5 Wind farm protection

7.3.6 Modelling information and verification

7.3.7 Communication and external control

7.3.8 Discussion of interconnection regulations

7.4 Technical Solutions for New Interconnection Rules

7.4.1 Absolute power constraint

7.4.2 Balance control

7.4.3 Power rate limitation control approach

7.4.4 Delta control

7.5 Interconnection Practice

7.6 Conclusions

References

Chapter 8
Power System Requirements for Wind Power

By Hannele Holttinen and Ritva Hirvonen

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Operation of the Power System

8.2.1 System reliability

8.2.2 Frequency control

8.2.3 Voltage management

8.3 Wind Power Production and the Power System

8.3.1 Production patterns of wind power

8.3.2 Variations of production and the smoothing effect

8.3.3 Predictability of wind power production

8.4 Effects of Wind Energy on the Power System

8.4.1 Short-term effects on reserves

8.4.2 Other short-term effects

8.4.3 Long-term effects on the adequacy of power capacity

8.4.4 Wind power in future power systems

8.5 Conclusions

References

Chapter 9
The Value of Wind Power

By Lennart Söder

9.1 Introduction

9.2 The Value of a Power Plant

9.2.1 Operating cost value

9.2.2 Capacity credit

9.2.3 Control value

9.2.4 Loss reduction value

9.2.5 Grid investment value

9.3 The Value of Wind Power

9.3.1 The operating cost value of wind power

9.3.2 The capacity credit of wind power

9.3.3 The control value of wind power

9.3.4 The loss reduction value of wind power

9.3.5 The grid investment value of wind power

9.4 The Market Value of Wind Power

9.4.1 The market operation cost value of wind power

9.4.2 The market capacity credit of wind power

9.4.3 The market control value of wind power

9.4.4 The market loss reduction value of wind power

9.4.5 The market grid investment value of wind power

9.5 Conclusions

References

Part B Power System Integration Experience

Chapter 10
Wind Power in the Danish Power System

By Peter Borre Eriksen and Carl Hilger

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Operational Issues

10.2.1 The Nordic market model for electricity trading

10.2.2 Different markets

10.2.3 Interaction between technical rules and the market

10.2.4 Example of how Eltra handles the balance task

10.2.5 Balancing via Nord Pool: first step

10.2.6 The accuracy of the forecasts

10.2.7 Network controller and instantaneous reserves

10.2.8 Balancing prices in the real-time market

10.2.9 Market prices fluctuating with high wind production

10.2.10 Other operational problems

10.3 System Analysis and Modelling Issues

10.3.1 Future development of wind power

10.3.2 Wind regime

10.3.3 Wind power forecast models

10.3.4 Grid connection

10.3.5 Modelling of power systems with large-scale wind power production

10.3.6 Wind power and system analysis

10.3.7 Case study CO2 reductions according to the Kyoto Protocol

10.4 Conclusions and Lessons Learned

References 232

Chapter 11
Wind Power in the German Power System: Current Status and Future

- Challenges of Maintaining Quality of Supply

By Matthias Luther, Uwe Radtke and Wilhelm R. Winter

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Current Performance of Wind Energy in Germany

11.3 Wind Power Supply in the E.ON Netz Area

11.4 Electricity System Control Requirements

11.5 Network Planning and Connection Requirements

11.6 Wind Turbines and Dynamic Performance Requirements

11.7 Object of Investigation and Constraints

11.8 Simulation Results

11.8.1 Voltage quality

11.8.2 Frequency stability

11.9 Additional Dynamic Requirements of Wind Turbines

11.10 Conclusions

References

Chapter 12
Wind Power on Weak Grids in California and the US Midwest

By H. M. Romanowitz

12.1 Introduction

12.2 The Early Weak Grid: Background

12.2.1 Tehachapi 66 kV transmission

12.2.2 VARs

12.2.3 FACTS devices

12.2.4 Development of wind energy on the Tehachapi 66 kV grid

12.2.5 Reliable generation

12.2.6 Capacity factor improvement: firming intermittent wind generation

12.3 Voltage Regulation: VAR Support on a Wind-dominated Grid

12.3.1 Voltage control of a self-excited induction machine

12.3.2 Voltage regulated VAR control